Development of Cognitive Learning Theory According to the Experts
Development of Cognitive Learning Theory According to the Experts - In some literature, cognitive psychology is said to be a blend of Gestalt psychology and Psychology Behaviorism. Daro historically known that the development of cognitive psychology begins with Kurt Lewin's immigration to the United States because of the pursuit of Nazi Germany before the Second World War. In the United States, from the university-the university where she works in Iowa and Massachusetts, Lewin spread Gestalt psychology theories that have been developed into field theory.
This field theory, as is known, is a theory that addresses psikiologik processes that occur in a person. Dengna other words, field theory to study the elements O (organisms) which in theory Tolman stated that the study of O should be implemented by seeking the relationship between B (Behavior) with S (situation) and A (antecendent or events that precede). SR relationships in the theory of Thorndike, according to Tolman needs to be intercourse SOR. In this SOR hubungna theories mendapt field of psychology in its place in the world Within the United States at that time was dominated by behaviorism, to later develop into the cognitive theory.
About the meaning of cognition itself is actually no specific deal. In general cognition means consciousness, but learned dlaam cognitive psychology are a variety of things such as attitudes, ideas, hopes, and so on. In other words, cognitive psychology to study how the flow of information captured by the senses is processed in the soul before it is deposited in the consciousness or embodied in the development of forms of behavior. Reaction to stimuli, according to this theory, does not always come out in the form of the behavior of a real (response overt) but also can precipitate in the form of memory or processed into turmoil feelings (anxiety, satisfaction, disappointment and so on) or attitudes (likes, dislikes he).
This cognitive theory does not investigate matters more deeply than that of the consciousness. He did not study the processes that terjdai in the subconscious and the unconscious. Karean that this theory can easily be distinguished from psychological theories analysis. Instead, dengna behaivorisme and structuralism, cognitive psychology rather suit distinguished, especially in the aspect of methodology. Behaviorism not meneytujui method of introspection, but for mendaptkan the data, behaviorists in experiments still ask the trial and the answer is recorded as data. Eg "op" are asked to read sesuat and experiment leader "pp" asks: "What you read ?," OP "replied for example," the article reads ZRT ".
Answer "op" by the behaviorist called verbal response, but by adherents of fixed cognitive psychology is called introspection. Only the so-called introspection in cognitive psychology is limited to what diinderakan or perceived by the "op" directly and spontaneously, while introspection in the flow of structuralism contains questions that must be answered in greater depth and to answer "op" should have the experience and certain capabilities. Herein lies the subjectivity of introspection model of structuralism.
The next difference between apsikologi cognitive and behaviorism include:
People who belong to the earliest in expressing theories can be classified in this cognitive psychology tends to flow F.Heider. The first article, Attitudes and Cognitive Organization, published in 1946. After that came other figures such as L. Festinger, CEOsgood, PH Tannen-Baum and T. M. Newcomb, G. Kelly. In this book is not all theory advanced by the figures mentioned above will be discussed. As an illustration deemed sufficient to put forward three theories, namely that each advanced by F. Haider and L. Festinger.
F.Heider (Theory POX): In his article mentioned above, Heider put forward the theory that stem from feelings that exist in someone against someone else and something else (a third party) concerning the first and the second. The first to experience the feeling that given the symbol P (Person or Personal). The second person associated with P given the symbol O (others or others), whereas a third party may be people, things, situations and so symbolized dengna X. Thus the three-party relationship is called POX relationship that can diskemakan sebagia follows
In line dengna principles of Gestalt psychology, the relationship between the POX can mutually have (one part from another, very closely) and another does not have. Mutual relations have called U-type relationship, while hubungna who do not belong to each other called non-U-type relationship. Types of hubungna is influenced by the principles of Gestalt psychology of perception such as similarity, proximity, continuity, set and past experience.
In addition, by borrowing the principles lapngan psychology of Kurt Lewin, according Hieder POX relationship can also be positive (love, adore, approve, and so on). The positive nature of the relationship which he named hubungna L (like), while the negative correlation relationship he called DL (dislike).
Based on the properties POX relationship mentioned above can occur various combinations which result POX relationship to cognition (awareness) P can be three kinds, namely:
Examples of these three cognitive circumstances mentioned above are as follows:
1.a. A teacher (P) like a disciple (0), and he liked ulangna good value (X). Hubungna PO is hubungna L. Similarly, the relationship P -X. While the great value it is restating results from O. hubungna OX is the type of U. Then the teacher (P) are unbalanced cognitive keadan
Development of Cognitive Learning Theory According to the experts 3_
1.b. A teacher (P) does not like a pupil (O) and he did not like the ugly ulangna value (X). Relations P-O and P-X is the relationship DL. While it is the result of a poor grade repetition of O, so the relationship is hubungna type OX U. Then P teacher experience cognitive state that is not balanced.
2. A gur (P) like a pupil (O) and he does not like bad value (X). PO relationship is the relationship L, while the P-X relationship is the relationship DL. Though it is a bad value test results O, so that the relationship OX dalah type of U. Consequently arise unbalanced juice inside P.
3.Seorang teachers (P) like a pupil (O). PO relationship is a relationship L. teacher was not like an ugly replay value (X), so that the relation P X is the relationship DL. But the value is ugly bukah O test results, so that h ubungna OX is not the type of relationship U. In this case the self-P will not arise anything (irrelevant).
Leon Festinger (Cognitive Dissonance): In his book, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (1957), Festinger (1919-1989) put forward his theory is heavily influenced by K. Lewin. In Festinger's theory, sectors in the field keseadaran called elements of cognition. The elements of cognition are related to each other and that there are three types of relationships maca, namely: (1) the relationship that is not relevant, (2) the relationship dissonant, and (3) the relationship consonants.
Examples of relationships that are not relevant example is the idea that every rainy season flooded the city and he knows that in East Kalimantan, there is a fertilizer factory. Relations between the two elements of cognition it is irrelevant that does not arise any reaction to the person concerned.
If the relationship is not relevant did not produce any reaction in someone, dissonant feeling caused resentment, strange, curious, odd, not satisfied and so on so as to encourage the person to do something to achieve a state of consonants. Consonant relationship itself creates a feeling satisfied, happy, able to understand and so forth. Dissonant relationship caused by the elements mutually deny cognition, while the relationship is a relationship that is not consonant dissonant. For example: we know that if someone stood in the rain (the first element) it will be wet (the second element). If we see a person standing in the wet because of rain, then we feel something that the state can be understood as a result of the consonant hubungna between elements of cognition. But if people are standing in the rain is not wet, then we who see it will wonder, strange, suspicious and so as a result of the relationship dissonant between elements of cognition that is both (not wet) which deny the element of cognition first (standing in the rain ).
According to Festinger, dissonant relationship can also be caused by cultural values and public opinion. For example in case of the following symptoms: eating with your hands bertarf international restaurant, a white man talking to the Java language, a grandfather sing a rock song or a minister eating at roadside stalls.
To reduce dissonance, there are three ways this can be achieved, namely:
The following is not my writing, I took from journals listed in the library list.
Cognitive psychology includes such topics as memory, concept formation, attention, reasoning, problem solving, mental imagery, judgment, and language. Likely as you have seen in your other classes, such topics are central to contemporary psychology.
1. Beginnings
From roughly the 1920s through the 1950s, American psychology was dominated by behaviorism. Behavior ism was concerned primarily with the learning of associations, par- ticularly in nonhuman species, and it constrained theorizing to the stimulus-response Notions. The overthrow of behaviorismcame not somuch from ideas within psychology as three research approaches from external to the fi eld.
1.1 Communications Research and the Information Processing Approach
DuringWorldWar II, new concepts and theories were developed about signal processing and ommunication, and Reviews These ideas had a profound impact on psychologists active during the war years. One important work was Shannon's 1948 paper about Information Theory. It proposed that information wascommunicated by sending a signal through a sequence of stages or transformations. This suggested that human perception and memory MIGHT be conceptualized in a Similar way: sensory information Enters the receptors, and then is fed into perceptual analyzers, Whose outputs in turn are input to memory systems. This was the start of the 'information processing'approach-the idea that cognition could be understood as a fl ow of information within the organism, an idea that continues to dominate cognitive psychology.
Perhaps the fi rst major theoretical e ff ort in information processing psychology was Donald Broadbent's Perception and Communication (Broadbent 1958). According to Broadbent's model, the information output from the perceptual system encountered a fi lter, the which only passed information to the which people were attending. Although this notion of an all-or-none fi lter would PROVE too strong (Treisman 1960), it o ff ered a mechanistic account of selective attention, a concept that had been banished during behaviorism. Information that passed Broadbent's fi lter thenmoved on to a 'decision limited channel capacity,' a system that has some of the properties of short-term memory, and fromthere on to long-termmemory. This last part of Broadbent's model the transfer of information from Short- to long-term memory-Became the salient point of the dual-memory models developed in the 1970s.
Another aspect of Information theory that Attracted psychologist's interest was a quantitative measure of information in terms of 'bits' (roughly, the logarithm to the base 2 of the number of possible alternatives). In a still cited paper Instant confirmation, GeorgeMiller (1956) Showed that the limits of short-term memory had little to do with bits. But along the way, Miller's and others' interest in the technical aspects of information theory and related work had fostered mathematical psychology, a sub fi eld that was being fueled by other sources as well (eg, Estes and Burke, 1953, Luce, 1959, Garner 1962) , Over the years, mathematical psychology has frequently joined forces with the information processing approach to provide precise claims about memory, attention, and related processes.
1.2 The Computer Modeling Approach
Technical developments Also duringWorldWar II led to the development of digital computers. Questions soon arose about the comparability of computer and human intelligence (Turing 1950). By 1957, Alan Newell, JC Shaw, and Herb Simon had designed a computer program that could solve logic problems at FFI cult, a domain previously thought to be the unique province of humans. Newell and Simon soon Followed with programs that displayed the general problem-solving skillsmuch like Reviews those of humans, and argued that programs o ff ered Reviews These detailed models of human problem solving (a classic summary is contained in Newell and Simon (1972)). Also this work would help establish the meaning of the fi eld of fi cial intelligence.
Early on, cross-talk between the developed computer modeling and information-processing approaches, the which crystallized in the 1960 book Plans and the Structure of behaior (Miller et al. 1960). The book Showed that information-processing psychology could use the theoretical language of computer modeling even if it did not actually lead to computer programs. With the 'bits' having failed as a psychological unit, information processing badly needed a rigorous but rich means to represent psychological information (without such representations, what exactly was being processed in the information processing approach?). Computer modeling supplied powerful ideas about representations (as the data structures), as well as about the processes that operate-on Reviews These structures. The resultant idea of human information processing as sequences of computational processes operating on mental representations remains the cornerstone of modern cognitive psychology (see eg, Fodor 1975).
1.3 The Generatie Linguistics Approach
A third external in fl uence that leads to the rise of modern cognitive psychology was the development of generative grammar in linguistics by Noam Chomsky. Two of Chomsky's publications in the late 1950s had a profound e ff ect on the nascent cognitive psychology. The fi rst was his 1957 book Syntactic Structures (Chomsky 1957). It focused on the mental structures needed to represent the kind of linguistic knowledge that any competent speaker of a language must have.
Chomsky argued that associations per se, and even phrase structure grammars, could not fully represent our knowledge of syntax (how words are organized into phrases and sentences). What had to be added was a component capable of transforming one syntactic structure into another. About transformational grammar Reviews These proposals would change the intellectual landscape of linguistics, and usher in a new psycholinguistics.
Chomsky's second publication (1959) was a review of Verbal behaior, a book about language learning by the thenmost respected behaviorist alive, BF Skinner (Skinner 1957). Chomsky's review is arguably one of the most signi fi cant documents in the history of cognitive psychology. It Aimed notmerely to devastate Skinner's proposals about language, but to underminebehaviorism as a serious scienti fi c approach to psychology. To some extent, it succeeded on both counts.
1.4 An Approach Intrinsic to Psychology
At least one source of modern cognitive psychology Came fromwithin the fi eld. This approach had its roots in Gestalt psychology, and maintained its focus on thehigher mental processes. A signal event in this tradition was the 1956 book A Study of Thinking, by Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin (Bruner et al. 1956). The work investigated how people learn new concepts and categories, and it emphasized strategies of learning rather than just associative relations. The proposals fi t perfectly with the information-processing approach-indeed, they were information processing proposals-and o ff ered still another reason to break from be-haviorism.
By the early 1960s all was in place. Behaviorism was on the Wane in academic departments all overAmerica (it had never really taken strong root in Europe). Psychologists interested in the information-processing approach were moving into academia, and Harvard University went so far as to establish a Center for Cognitive Studies directed by Jerome Bruner and George Miller. The new view in psychology was information processing. It likenedmind to a computer, and emphasized the representations and processes needed to give rise to activities ranging from pattern recognition, attention, Categorization, memory, reasoning, decision making, problem solving, and language.
A few articles on Learning Theory of Cognitive Development According to the experts.
This field theory, as is known, is a theory that addresses psikiologik processes that occur in a person. Dengna other words, field theory to study the elements O (organisms) which in theory Tolman stated that the study of O should be implemented by seeking the relationship between B (Behavior) with S (situation) and A (antecendent or events that precede). SR relationships in the theory of Thorndike, according to Tolman needs to be intercourse SOR. In this SOR hubungna theories mendapt field of psychology in its place in the world Within the United States at that time was dominated by behaviorism, to later develop into the cognitive theory.
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This cognitive theory does not investigate matters more deeply than that of the consciousness. He did not study the processes that terjdai in the subconscious and the unconscious. Karean that this theory can easily be distinguished from psychological theories analysis. Instead, dengna behaivorisme and structuralism, cognitive psychology rather suit distinguished, especially in the aspect of methodology. Behaviorism not meneytujui method of introspection, but for mendaptkan the data, behaviorists in experiments still ask the trial and the answer is recorded as data. Eg "op" are asked to read sesuat and experiment leader "pp" asks: "What you read ?," OP "replied for example," the article reads ZRT ".
Answer "op" by the behaviorist called verbal response, but by adherents of fixed cognitive psychology is called introspection. Only the so-called introspection in cognitive psychology is limited to what diinderakan or perceived by the "op" directly and spontaneously, while introspection in the flow of structuralism contains questions that must be answered in greater depth and to answer "op" should have the experience and certain capabilities. Herein lies the subjectivity of introspection model of structuralism.
The next difference between apsikologi cognitive and behaviorism include:
- Behaviorism conditioning dna related to the learning process, while the cognitive psychology learn more about the formation of the concept, the process of thinking and build knowledge.
- Behaviorism studied the behavior of a real (overt), whereas cognitive psychology discuss mentalistic concepts, namely the mental processes that are not always apparent from the outside appears.
- Behaviorism is more concerned with the molecular behavior (reflex) rather than the behavior of molar.
- Behaviorism memntingkan factor needs and satisfying needs (reinforcement), whereas cognitive psychology found without any specific needs, the learning process can still occur.
People who belong to the earliest in expressing theories can be classified in this cognitive psychology tends to flow F.Heider. The first article, Attitudes and Cognitive Organization, published in 1946. After that came other figures such as L. Festinger, CEOsgood, PH Tannen-Baum and T. M. Newcomb, G. Kelly. In this book is not all theory advanced by the figures mentioned above will be discussed. As an illustration deemed sufficient to put forward three theories, namely that each advanced by F. Haider and L. Festinger.
F.Heider (Theory POX): In his article mentioned above, Heider put forward the theory that stem from feelings that exist in someone against someone else and something else (a third party) concerning the first and the second. The first to experience the feeling that given the symbol P (Person or Personal). The second person associated with P given the symbol O (others or others), whereas a third party may be people, things, situations and so symbolized dengna X. Thus the three-party relationship is called POX relationship that can diskemakan sebagia follows
In line dengna principles of Gestalt psychology, the relationship between the POX can mutually have (one part from another, very closely) and another does not have. Mutual relations have called U-type relationship, while hubungna who do not belong to each other called non-U-type relationship. Types of hubungna is influenced by the principles of Gestalt psychology of perception such as similarity, proximity, continuity, set and past experience.
In addition, by borrowing the principles lapngan psychology of Kurt Lewin, according Hieder POX relationship can also be positive (love, adore, approve, and so on). The positive nature of the relationship which he named hubungna L (like), while the negative correlation relationship he called DL (dislike).
Based on the properties POX relationship mentioned above can occur various combinations which result POX relationship to cognition (awareness) P can be three kinds, namely:
- A state of balance (balance) which creates a feeling of satisfied, happy and encourages P to do something to maintain this relationship.
- Unbalanced state (imbalance) causing displeasure, dissatisfied, curious dna forth and caused P compelled to do something to change the properties of POX relationship so that approaching a balanced state.
- Circumstances are irrelevant (irrelevant), which does not affect anything against P, so that P is not compelled to do anything.
Examples of these three cognitive circumstances mentioned above are as follows:
1.a. A teacher (P) like a disciple (0), and he liked ulangna good value (X). Hubungna PO is hubungna L. Similarly, the relationship P -X. While the great value it is restating results from O. hubungna OX is the type of U. Then the teacher (P) are unbalanced cognitive keadan
Development of Cognitive Learning Theory According to the experts 3_
1.b. A teacher (P) does not like a pupil (O) and he did not like the ugly ulangna value (X). Relations P-O and P-X is the relationship DL. While it is the result of a poor grade repetition of O, so the relationship is hubungna type OX U. Then P teacher experience cognitive state that is not balanced.
2. A gur (P) like a pupil (O) and he does not like bad value (X). PO relationship is the relationship L, while the P-X relationship is the relationship DL. Though it is a bad value test results O, so that the relationship OX dalah type of U. Consequently arise unbalanced juice inside P.
3.Seorang teachers (P) like a pupil (O). PO relationship is a relationship L. teacher was not like an ugly replay value (X), so that the relation P X is the relationship DL. But the value is ugly bukah O test results, so that h ubungna OX is not the type of relationship U. In this case the self-P will not arise anything (irrelevant).
Leon Festinger (Cognitive Dissonance): In his book, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (1957), Festinger (1919-1989) put forward his theory is heavily influenced by K. Lewin. In Festinger's theory, sectors in the field keseadaran called elements of cognition. The elements of cognition are related to each other and that there are three types of relationships maca, namely: (1) the relationship that is not relevant, (2) the relationship dissonant, and (3) the relationship consonants.
Examples of relationships that are not relevant example is the idea that every rainy season flooded the city and he knows that in East Kalimantan, there is a fertilizer factory. Relations between the two elements of cognition it is irrelevant that does not arise any reaction to the person concerned.
If the relationship is not relevant did not produce any reaction in someone, dissonant feeling caused resentment, strange, curious, odd, not satisfied and so on so as to encourage the person to do something to achieve a state of consonants. Consonant relationship itself creates a feeling satisfied, happy, able to understand and so forth. Dissonant relationship caused by the elements mutually deny cognition, while the relationship is a relationship that is not consonant dissonant. For example: we know that if someone stood in the rain (the first element) it will be wet (the second element). If we see a person standing in the wet because of rain, then we feel something that the state can be understood as a result of the consonant hubungna between elements of cognition. But if people are standing in the rain is not wet, then we who see it will wonder, strange, suspicious and so as a result of the relationship dissonant between elements of cognition that is both (not wet) which deny the element of cognition first (standing in the rain ).
According to Festinger, dissonant relationship can also be caused by cultural values and public opinion. For example in case of the following symptoms: eating with your hands bertarf international restaurant, a white man talking to the Java language, a grandfather sing a rock song or a minister eating at roadside stalls.
To reduce dissonance, there are three ways this can be achieved, namely:
- Changing the behavior of elements, for example: a girl buy expensive clothes, but his friends reproach wedge it because they consider ugly. The girl felt dissonant because expensive clothes were not good (the first element rejected by elements II). The reaction of the girl wedge may resell it or give it to someone else.
- Changing cognition elements of the environment, for example: the girl on top to try to convince his friends that the clothes were fashion, favored by animals and a very beautiful movie.
- Changing elements of the new cognition, for example, seek the opinion of other friends who support the idea that the clothes beautiful that denial by a second element could be neutralized.
The following is not my writing, I took from journals listed in the library list.
Cognitive psychology includes such topics as memory, concept formation, attention, reasoning, problem solving, mental imagery, judgment, and language. Likely as you have seen in your other classes, such topics are central to contemporary psychology.
1. Beginnings
From roughly the 1920s through the 1950s, American psychology was dominated by behaviorism. Behavior ism was concerned primarily with the learning of associations, par- ticularly in nonhuman species, and it constrained theorizing to the stimulus-response Notions. The overthrow of behaviorismcame not somuch from ideas within psychology as three research approaches from external to the fi eld.
1.1 Communications Research and the Information Processing Approach
DuringWorldWar II, new concepts and theories were developed about signal processing and ommunication, and Reviews These ideas had a profound impact on psychologists active during the war years. One important work was Shannon's 1948 paper about Information Theory. It proposed that information wascommunicated by sending a signal through a sequence of stages or transformations. This suggested that human perception and memory MIGHT be conceptualized in a Similar way: sensory information Enters the receptors, and then is fed into perceptual analyzers, Whose outputs in turn are input to memory systems. This was the start of the 'information processing'approach-the idea that cognition could be understood as a fl ow of information within the organism, an idea that continues to dominate cognitive psychology.
Perhaps the fi rst major theoretical e ff ort in information processing psychology was Donald Broadbent's Perception and Communication (Broadbent 1958). According to Broadbent's model, the information output from the perceptual system encountered a fi lter, the which only passed information to the which people were attending. Although this notion of an all-or-none fi lter would PROVE too strong (Treisman 1960), it o ff ered a mechanistic account of selective attention, a concept that had been banished during behaviorism. Information that passed Broadbent's fi lter thenmoved on to a 'decision limited channel capacity,' a system that has some of the properties of short-term memory, and fromthere on to long-termmemory. This last part of Broadbent's model the transfer of information from Short- to long-term memory-Became the salient point of the dual-memory models developed in the 1970s.
Another aspect of Information theory that Attracted psychologist's interest was a quantitative measure of information in terms of 'bits' (roughly, the logarithm to the base 2 of the number of possible alternatives). In a still cited paper Instant confirmation, GeorgeMiller (1956) Showed that the limits of short-term memory had little to do with bits. But along the way, Miller's and others' interest in the technical aspects of information theory and related work had fostered mathematical psychology, a sub fi eld that was being fueled by other sources as well (eg, Estes and Burke, 1953, Luce, 1959, Garner 1962) , Over the years, mathematical psychology has frequently joined forces with the information processing approach to provide precise claims about memory, attention, and related processes.
1.2 The Computer Modeling Approach
Technical developments Also duringWorldWar II led to the development of digital computers. Questions soon arose about the comparability of computer and human intelligence (Turing 1950). By 1957, Alan Newell, JC Shaw, and Herb Simon had designed a computer program that could solve logic problems at FFI cult, a domain previously thought to be the unique province of humans. Newell and Simon soon Followed with programs that displayed the general problem-solving skillsmuch like Reviews those of humans, and argued that programs o ff ered Reviews These detailed models of human problem solving (a classic summary is contained in Newell and Simon (1972)). Also this work would help establish the meaning of the fi eld of fi cial intelligence.
Early on, cross-talk between the developed computer modeling and information-processing approaches, the which crystallized in the 1960 book Plans and the Structure of behaior (Miller et al. 1960). The book Showed that information-processing psychology could use the theoretical language of computer modeling even if it did not actually lead to computer programs. With the 'bits' having failed as a psychological unit, information processing badly needed a rigorous but rich means to represent psychological information (without such representations, what exactly was being processed in the information processing approach?). Computer modeling supplied powerful ideas about representations (as the data structures), as well as about the processes that operate-on Reviews These structures. The resultant idea of human information processing as sequences of computational processes operating on mental representations remains the cornerstone of modern cognitive psychology (see eg, Fodor 1975).
1.3 The Generatie Linguistics Approach
A third external in fl uence that leads to the rise of modern cognitive psychology was the development of generative grammar in linguistics by Noam Chomsky. Two of Chomsky's publications in the late 1950s had a profound e ff ect on the nascent cognitive psychology. The fi rst was his 1957 book Syntactic Structures (Chomsky 1957). It focused on the mental structures needed to represent the kind of linguistic knowledge that any competent speaker of a language must have.
Chomsky argued that associations per se, and even phrase structure grammars, could not fully represent our knowledge of syntax (how words are organized into phrases and sentences). What had to be added was a component capable of transforming one syntactic structure into another. About transformational grammar Reviews These proposals would change the intellectual landscape of linguistics, and usher in a new psycholinguistics.
Chomsky's second publication (1959) was a review of Verbal behaior, a book about language learning by the thenmost respected behaviorist alive, BF Skinner (Skinner 1957). Chomsky's review is arguably one of the most signi fi cant documents in the history of cognitive psychology. It Aimed notmerely to devastate Skinner's proposals about language, but to underminebehaviorism as a serious scienti fi c approach to psychology. To some extent, it succeeded on both counts.
1.4 An Approach Intrinsic to Psychology
At least one source of modern cognitive psychology Came fromwithin the fi eld. This approach had its roots in Gestalt psychology, and maintained its focus on thehigher mental processes. A signal event in this tradition was the 1956 book A Study of Thinking, by Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin (Bruner et al. 1956). The work investigated how people learn new concepts and categories, and it emphasized strategies of learning rather than just associative relations. The proposals fi t perfectly with the information-processing approach-indeed, they were information processing proposals-and o ff ered still another reason to break from be-haviorism.
By the early 1960s all was in place. Behaviorism was on the Wane in academic departments all overAmerica (it had never really taken strong root in Europe). Psychologists interested in the information-processing approach were moving into academia, and Harvard University went so far as to establish a Center for Cognitive Studies directed by Jerome Bruner and George Miller. The new view in psychology was information processing. It likenedmind to a computer, and emphasized the representations and processes needed to give rise to activities ranging from pattern recognition, attention, Categorization, memory, reasoning, decision making, problem solving, and language.
A few articles on Learning Theory of Cognitive Development According to the experts.
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