Kinds of Perception in Psychology According to Experts

Kinds of Perception in Psychology According to Experts - This article will explain the mechanisms of perception. Through this article is expected to understand the concepts of perceptual mechanisms that consist of hearing, touch, smell, taste, and attention.

Principles of Sensory System Organization

According to convention, sensory areas of the cortex are considered to consist of three types that differ fundamentally differently → primary, secondary, and associate.
Primary sensory cortex → the sensory cortical region that receives most of its input directly from the system's thermal conducting nuclei.
Secondary sensory cortex → a system that includes sensory cortical regions that receive most of its input from the system's primary sensory cortex or from other regions in the same system's secondary sensory cortex.
Associated cortex → all cortical regions that receive input from more than one sensory system.
The interactions between the three sensory cortex types and among other sensory structures are characterized by three key principles → hierarchical organization, functional segregation, and parallel processing.

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Hierarchical Organization

Hierarchy → a system whose members can be placed to a certain level or rank in relation to other members.
Sensory structures are organized in a hierarchy based on the specificity and complexity of its function.

Kinds of Perception in Psychology According to Experts_

Captions: the receptors perform the simplest and most common analyzes, and the association cortex runs the most complex and most specific analysis.
The hierarchical organization of the sensory system is evident from the comparison of damage effects at various levels → the higher the degree of damage, the more specific, and the more complex the deficit is.
In recognizing the hierarchical organization of sensory systems, psychologists sometimes divide general perception into two general phases → sensation and perception.
Sensation → process of detecting the presence of stimuli.
Perception → higher processes, ie integrating, recognizing, and interpreting the complete patterns of sensation.

Functional Segregation

Initially, primary, secondary, and associative areas are assumed to be a functionally homogeneous sensory system → all the cortical regions at any level of the sensory hierarchy work together to perform the same function.
Research shows that the characteristics of the sensory system organizations are functional segregation → each cerebral cortex level (primary, secondary, associate) in each sensory system contains highly functionally different areas, which are specialized in various analyzes.

Parallel processing

The sensory system is a parallel system → a system whose information flows through various components through multiple paths.
Parallel processing → simultaneous analysis of a signal in different ways through multiple parallel paths in neural networks.
There are two types of parallel currents that are fundamentally different in the sensory system → currents that are capable of influencing behavior without our conscious knowledge and the currents that affect our behavior with our conscious knowing.

Current Sensory System Organization Model

Sensory systems are believed to be hierarchical , segregated , and parallel in nature .
There is a single region in the cortex at the top of the sensory hierarchy that receives signals from other regions of the sensory system and unifies them to form perception, but no cortical region to which all regions in a sensory system must report → perception is a product The combined activity of many cortical regions connected to each other.

Auditory System

Auditory system functions → perceive sounds → perceptions of objects and events through the sounds they produce.
Sound → vibration of air molecules that stimulate the auditory system.
Humans only hear molecular vibrations between about 20-20,000 Hz .
The amplitude , frequency , and complexity of the vibrations of the molecules most closely associated with the perception of loudness (hard-soft), pitch (high-low), and timbre (tone color).
Pure sound (sine wave vibration) only exists in the laboratory and recording studio. In real life, sound is always associated with a complex vibration pattern.
Fourier analysis (→ Fourier analysis) → a mathematical procedure for detailing complex waves into sine waves which are its components.
Pure sound → consists of a close relationship between the frequency of the sound and the perceived pitch .
The natural sound → consists of a mixture of various frequencies → the pitch is perceived to be very complex → related to the fundamental frequency.
The fundamental frequency → the highest frequency → the highest multiplier of the frequencies which is the component of a sound → example: the mixed sound of frequencies 100, 200, and 300 Hz → its pitch is related to 100 Hz → the highest multiplier factor of those frequencies.
One of the most important characteristics of perception of pitch → pitch of a complex sound may not be directly related to the frequency of any component of the sound → example: a mixture of pure sounds of 200, 300, and 400 Hz will be perceived to have the same pitch as the pure sound 100 Hz → fundamental frequency.
This aspect of pitch perception is called missing fundamentals .

Ear

The sound waves running down through the auditory canal → cause tympanic membrane / eardrum to vibrate → vibration / vibration transferred to the ossicles (tiny bones in the middle ear: hammer ( malleus ), anvil ( incus ), and stirrup ( stapes )) → trigger vibration The oval window membrane → transferring the vibration to the cochlea liquid → to the organ of the corti (auditory receptor organs).
Kokhlea → a long, circular tube (like a coil) with an internal membrane that flows almost to its end.

Any change in pressure on the oval window goes along Corti's organs as a wave.
The Corti organ consists of two membranes:
Basilar membrane → auditory receptors and hair cells attached to this membrane.
Textural membrane → leaning on the hair cells.
Reflection of Corti organs at any point along the span will produce shearing force in hair cells at the same point → stimulate hair cells → trigger action force in auditory neural ions (cranial nerve branch VIII: auditory-vestibular nerve ).
The cochlea fluid vibration is propagated by a rond window (an round window) → an elastic membrane inside the cochlea wall.
The main principle of coding cochlesa → different frequencies results in maximum stimulation of hair cells at different points along the basilar lobe → higher frequencies resulting in greater activation closer to the windows and lower frequencies resulting in activation Larger at the end of the basilar membrane → the frequency of components that make up every complex sound will activate the hair cells in different points along the basilar membrane → the number of signals created by a single complex sound brought out of the ear by many different auditory neurons.
The organization of the auditory system on the pokonya is tonotopic .
The auditory system is able to sort the individual frequency messages into separate categories and combine them in such a way that the individual hears each source of the complex sounds independently.

From the Ear to the Primary Auditory Cortex

The axons of each auditory auditory nerve in the ipsilateral echille cokhlear → many projections produce superior olives on both sides of the brainstem at the same level → the olivarian neuronic oscillators projection through the lateral lemniscus to the inferior colliculi → engaging into the medial geniculate nuclei in the thalamus → Projecting into the primary auditory cortex .

Subcortical Mechanisms of Sound Localization

The localization of sound in the room is mediated by the superior lateral and medial olives , but in different ways → when the sound comes from the left side of a person, first he reaches the left ear, and is heard loudly in the left ear.
Some neurons in the superior medial olives respond to the thin difference in the arrival of signals from both ears, while the lateral super-neuronal olives respond to the slight difference in the amplitude of the sounds of both ears.
Superior medial and lateral olives project to superior colliculus .

Primary and Secondary Auditory Cortex

In primates, the primary auditory cortex, which receives most of its input from the medial nucleic nucleus , lies in the temporal lobe , within the lateral fissure .
Adjacent to and surrounding the primary auditory cortex, there is a "ribbon" ( band ) is often called the "belt" ( belt ) of derah-secondary cortical regions → auditory cortex areas outside belt secondary was called parabelt areas .
Two important principles of the primary auditory cortex organization:
The primary auditory cortex is organized in functional columns
Like, kokhlea, the auditory cortex is organized tonotoically
Each region of the primary and secondary auditory cortex appears to be organized on a frequency basis.
The human auditory cortex seems similar in many respects to primates.

Damage Effects on Auditory Systems

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Total deafness is rare → may result from a network of parallel and widespread auditory pathways.
There are 2 classes of common hearing loss → hendaya associated with damage to osicles (conductive deafness) and associated with damage to the cochlea (deafness).
When only the broken part of the cochhele is broken, individuals may experience deafness for certain frequencies, but not for others → age-related hearing losses.

Somatosensory System: Tactile and Painful

Sensations of the body → somatosensasi .
The system that mediates the bodily sensations of the somatosensory system .
Three separate but interacting somatosensory systems, namely:
The exorepeptive system → senses the external stimuli applied to the skin.
The proprioceptive system → monitors information about the positions of the body coming from receptors in muscles, joints, and balance organs.
The interoseptive system → provides general information about the conditions in the body (eg, temperature and blood pressure).
The exteroceptive system consists of three distinct divisions:
A division of perceiving stimuli mechanical àperabaan
A division for thermal stimuli → temperature
A division for nociceptive stimuli → pain

Cutaneous Receptors

The simplest cutaneous receptors are free nerve endings → the ends of neurons without specialized structures → very sensitive to changes in temperature and pain.
The greatest and deepest receptors → Pacinian corpuscles (adaptive to Pacinian) → adapt quickly, so they immediately respond to sudden displacement of the skin.
Merkel's discs and Ruffini endings à adapt slowly and each respond strongly to gradual skin indentations and gradual stretching of the skin.
By having some of the receptors that adapt quickly and others slowly adapt → providing information about the dynamic and static qualities of various tactual stimuli.
The structure and physiology of each type of specialized somatosensory receptor → allow the corresponding receptor to be sensitive to certain types of stimulated stimulation.
However, in general, these different receptors tend to behave in the same way → the stimuli applied to the skin deforming or altering the receptor's chemistry → changing the permeability of the receptor cell membrane to ions → the result is a neural signal.

Dermatoma

Neural fibers carrying information from cutaneous receptors and other somatosensory receptors converge on the nerves → enter the spinal cord through the dorsal roots.
Dermatoma → body area stimulated by the left and right dorsal roots in a particular spinal segment of the spinal cord.

Two Main Somatosensory Pathways

Two main somatosensory pathways:
The medial-dorsal medial dorsal system → tends to bring information about touch and propriopsepsi.
The antero-lateral system → tends to bring information about pain and temperature.
Medial dermal medial dorsal system:

Sensory neurons enters the spinal cord via dorsal root ipsilateral ipsilateral rise in dorsal column → synapses in the dorsal medial column of the medulla → the axons of the dorsal column nucleus neurons decussate (across to the other side of the brain) → rise inside The medial lemniscus to the posralateral ventral nucleus of the thalamus.

The ventral posterior nucleus also receives input through the three branches of the trigeminal nerve → carrying somatosensory information from the contralateral areas of the face. Most posterior ventral nucleus neurons project into the primary somatosensory cortex (SI), others project to secondary somatosensory cortex (SII) or posterior parietal cortex.
Anterolateral system:

Most dorsal root neurons of the anterolateral system are synaptic as soon as they enter the spinal cord → axons decussate → rise to the brain in the contralateral spinal vertical anterolateral portion → some do not decussate but rise ipsilaterally.

The anterolateral system consists of 3 different tracts:
The spinotalamic ribus → project into the posterior ventral nucleus of the thalamus
The spinoreticular tract → projected into a reticular formation
The spinotectal tract → projected onto the tectum
When both somatosensory pathways rise completely disconnected by a spinal injury, the patient may not feel the sensation of the body starting from below the interrupted level.

Cortical Areas Somatosensasi

The primary somatosensory human cortex (SI) is somatotopic → organized according to the surface map of the body → commonly called somatosensory homunculus .
The second somatotopically organized region → SII → lies precisely in the ventral position to SI in the possentral gene.
SII receives most of its input from SI and is therefore considered a secondary somatosensory cortex.
Many outputs of SI and SII lead to the posterior parietal lobe association cortex .
The posterior parietal cortex contains bimodal neurons (neurons that respond to activation of two different sensory systems) responding to somatosensory and visual stimuli.

Agnosia Somatosensori

Two main types of somatosensory agnosia:
Astereognosia → the inability to recognize objects by touch
Asomatognosia → inability to mngenali parts of the body itself → usually only affect the left side of the body → usually associated with extensive damage to the right posterior parietal lobe
Anosognosia → the inability of neuropsychological patients to recognize their own symptoms

Perception of Illness

No special stimulus for pain → pain is a response to any potentially harmful stimulation.
The area of the cortex is most often associated with the experience of pain → the anterior cingulate cortex .
Gate-control theory → explains the ability of cognitive and emotional factors to block pain.
Neuropathic pain → severe chronic pain in the absence of a suspected pain stimulus → appears to be caused by pathological changes in the nervous system that are somehow induced by the original injury → the source is usually activity in the central nervous system.

Indra Chemical: Smell and Splash

Olfaction and gustation are called the chemical senses → their function is to monitor the chemical content of the environment.
Olfaction → olfactory system response to airborne chemicals, drawn by breathing through receptors in nasal passages.
Tapping → gustatory system response to chemicals in solution in the oral cavity.
When we eat, smell and tasting work simultaneously. Food molecules generate olfactory receptors and tasting → produce an integrated sensory impression → flavor .
In humans, the main adaptive role of the chemical senses → the recognition of taste.

Olfactory System

The olfactory receptors are located at the top of the nose, attached to the closed tissue layer of mucus → olfactory mucosa (olfactory mucosa).
Their dendrites are located in nasal ducts, and their axons pass through a porous passage in the skull bone → entering olfactory bulbs → synapses in neurons projecting through the olfactory tract to the brain.
In mammals, each olfactory receptor cell contains only one type of molecule of the receptor -one-olfactory-receptor-one-neuron-rule protein .
All types of receptors seem to be scattered throughout the mucosa, without any clue about the organization of the system.
The various odors produce different spatial patterns of activity in the olfactory bulb masing each receptor responds with varying degrees to a wide range of odors → each odor is coded by component processing.
New olfactory receptor cells are created throughout a person's life to replace those that have worsened → just survive for several weeks.
Each of the olfactory tracts projected into several medial temporal lobe structures, including the amygdala and piriform cortex .
The olfactory system is the only system whose sensory pathway reaches the cerebral cortex without first having to go through the thalamus.
The two main olfactory pathways leave the piriform regions of the → one projectively spread to the limbic system , others project through the medial dorsal nucleus of the thalamus to the orbitofrontal cortex .
Limbic projection allegedly mediates an emotional response to odor; Orbitofrotal-thalamic projection allegedly mediates a perceived perception of odor.

Gustatory System

The tasting receptors are found on the tongue and in different parts of the oral cavity, they are usually seen in clusters of 50 receptors → taste buds .
The tasting receptors do not have their own axons → each impulse neuron of a taste buds receives input from many receptors.
Afferent gustatory neurons leave the mouth leaving the mouth as part of the cranial nerves of the face (VII), glosopharyngeal (IX), and vagus (X) → these fibers all end up in the solitary nucleus of the medulla → synaptic in the projected neurons To the posterior nucleus of the ventral thalamus. The posterior ventral posterior gustatory axons projection into the primary gustatory cortex and to the secondary gustatory cortex.

Brain Damage and Chemical Senses

Anosmia → inability to smell → the most common cause is a blow on the head → causing brain displacement within the skull and cutting off the olfactory nerves that travel through the sribriform plate .
Age → inability to taste.

Selective Attention

We only consciously perceive a small subset of the many stimuli that excite our sensory organs at some point and ignore the rest of them - selective attention .
Selective atten- tion has two features → increasing perceptions of the focusing stimuli, and interfering with the perception of non-focused stimuli.
Attention may be focused in two ways: by internal cognitive processes ( attention endogenous → mediated by neural mechanisms from top to bottom) or by external events ( attention externally → mediated by neural mechanisms from bottom to top).
Coctail-party phenomenon → shows that our brain can block all stimuli from our consciousness except for certain types of stimuli that still monitor the unconsciously blocked stimuli if something that requires attention arises.
Change blindnes → this phenomenon occurs because, contrary to our impression, when we see a scene , we have absolutely no memory of the parts of the scene that are not the focus of our attention → does not occur without short intervals (less than 0.1 second) → without interval, no memory is needed and the change will soon be perceived.
The neural mechanism of attention → according to current theories, neural representations of the various aspects of visual display compete with each other. Selective atten- tion is thought to work by strengthening the neural response to the aspects of attention and by weakening the response to others. In general, anticipation of a stimulus increases the neural activity on the same circuit affected by the stimulus itself.
Simultanogsia → attention disorder in which the individual has difficulty noticing more than one object at the same time. Visual simultanogsia → difficulties in visually perception of more than one object at the same time → dorsal currents are responsible for visually localized greetings.